Sep
24
Antique Clocks. English and German Clocks
September 24, 2009 |
A notebook of Leonardo da Vinci’s from about 1500 cqntains
the first known illustration of a fusee and it also seems likely that the
first spring clocks came from Italy, although no early examples survive,
only references to them in early papers dated 1482 and 1493.
Peter Henlein of Nuremberg was responsible for the first significant
technical advances in the spring-clock in the first decade of the 16th
century. One of only three suriving clocks of the early 16th centufy is in
the possession of the Society of Antiquaries in London and is signed
‘Jacob Zech’ (Jacob the Czech). The clock has a year wheel show ng the
position of the sun in the zodiac and an hour circle that could be ac justed
for countries such as Bohemia and Italy that used a 24-hour day. Other
than these two clockmakers the only other known one is Caspar Werner.
The first spring driven clocks were horizontal with the cases either
drum-shaped, square or later hexagonal. The sides were fully enclosed
and frequently highly engraved. Progress was rapid and soon highly
ornate and more complicated clocks appeared. Greater accuracy was
possible and so minute hands were added. Automata and astronomical
dials appeared, together with complicated strike and chime mechanisms.
An alternative method of enclosing the mechanism was devised in the
early part of the century. The top-plate and dial-plate are fixed to the
movement frame while the sides and back are left open. The whole
assembly is then slipped into a case which has much of the fron open.
This method, by providing the large bare surfaces of the case, gave
ample scope for decoration.
Centres in South Germany produced the finest clocks at this date.
Organized guilds in these areas were particularly strict and by now
distinct from those of the blacksmiths, locksmiths and gunsmiths. The
Parisian Clockmakers Guild had also been granted a charter by Fi ancois
I, but the Company of Clockmakers was not established in Engladd until
lie advent of the mainspring opened the door to the possibility of
traf/elling clocks. Although there is some doubt about the authenticity
of he story, it is said that Louis XI (1423-83) was the owner of the first
tra felling clock, which it was said, was small enough to fit into the sleeve
of his gown. The clock was supposedly delivered to the king in 1480 by
Jeanlde Paris, so that if the story is true the king owned a clock that was
no Weight-driven, so preceding the earliest known Italian examples first
se« lin 1485. Mher than the Zech clock, another clock of German origin from
c.l 550 and now in a private collection, is a further step on the road to
travelling clocks. Drum-shaped, with no engraving on the case, it has an
iron movement with a tall fusee and large balance, but no balance spring.
Th sjclock has a leather travelling case with lock and key.
Drum-shaped table clocks with detachable alarums were in use on the
coi tinent from c.l 540-1600 and many were equipped with leather cases.
On w late 16th century table clock by Roweau of Paris, which has a
circular balance but no balance spring, would appear to be just a table
clock except for the fact that the leather case has a window to show the
dia J implying that it was not only meant to be carried but was also in
op Ration while travelling.
Watches undoubtedly developed from portable clocks, the latter becom-
ing possible once the source of motive power was the mainspring rather
thalri weights. It is now thought that the mainspring was possibly in use
by pie 1450s and it was definitely known by 1477.
There is some uncertainty about who invented the watch but references
in Qosmographia Pomponiae Melas (1511) by Johannes Cocclaeus point
locksmith Peter Henlein of Nuremberg. However, Italian clock-
xers were active in this period and by 1488 small portable clocks and
probably watches were being made there. A school of watchmaking in
France did not exist until the second decade of the 16th century. Another
tion that arises in connection with the originator of watches is that
one would expect the shape of the first watch to have been drum-
ed, following the pattern of portable clocks, Peter Henlein’s early
£hes are known to have been spherical. The earliest dated watch
48) has a tambour case.
jarly German movements were made of iron with a verge escapement
foliot with a stackfreed to equalize the power of the spring. Cocclaeus’
references to Henlein, however, speak of his watches running for forty
hours, whereas watches with a stackfreed run for only twenty-six hours.
It BJpossible that Henlein used ’stopwork’ which was a device to prevent
over-winding of the watch and to enable the middle turns only of the
mainspring to be used, giving a more even torque. Examples of early
Nuremberg watches with stopwork are well known. French and English
wctjhmakers preferred the use of a fusee rather than a stackfreed.
Watches
Initially these used a gut line, but this was replaced by the chain
Striking and alarm mechanisms were incorporated in very early
watches and, as had happened with some clocks, calendar and astro-
nomical indications also became popular. Dials had only one hand, the
hour hand, and were marked in hour and half-hour divisions. Since
glass covers had not been invented, either a solid cover was used or one
that had been decoratively pierced so that the tip of the hour hand was
visible.
Decoration on the dial usually consisted of a star or sun with twelve
sunbeams connecting the hour numerals to the centre. Dials became
more elaborate as the century progressed, with engraved work replacing
the central sun.
Cases of this period fall into two groups - drum and spherical - both
characterized by a restraint in decoration which probably emphasized
the greater importance of the movement at this time. Many watch cases
were pierced so that the movement could be seen. Spherical watph cases
were shaped from copper sheet and then chiselled and engraved; drum-
type cases were usually cast. After about 1585 the German drum shape
was replaced by a circular case with domed front and back covers.
Patterns of 15th century metalwork continued into the 16th century
which saw a few innovations. Firebacks originated around the beginning
of the 15th century. They were, it is thought, first made for use in
the newly-introduced wall-fireplace, both to protect the wall and to
radiate the heat of the fire. The first ones were probably simple! slabs of
cast-iron, but they soon became decorated. A plain board was used as
the basic pattern, and the mould was open topped. After the pattern’s
removal, decoration was impressed into the sand. The commonest im-
pressions were taken from stiffened lengths of rope, pushed into the
sand to form patterns such as pentagrams, triangles, squares and borders.
Sometimes the founder would push the impression of his hand or of
some of his tools into the sand. Such decorations long persisted and were
used alongside more sophisticated decorations on the same backs.
In time, firebacks made from patterns carved in one piece became the
norm. The earliest English specimen dates from 1548. Decorations vary
enormously and include heraldic devices, flowers and allegorical.
Biblical and domestic scenes. Shape also altered somewhat over the
years; at first firebacks were simple horizontal rectangles, sometimes with
a pointed or curved top. Later they became less elongated and had more
elaborate tops; from the end of the 17th century they became roughly
square, again with decorative tops, to fit into the newer, smaller type of
fireplace. They were made into the 19th century, and reproductions are
still cast.
Firedogs or andirons have an even longer history than firebacks. They
were used in Roman times, long before the invention of the wall fireplace,
whehjthe fire was made in the centre of the house and the smoke escaped
thro igh a hole in the roof. Their parts are known as the stauke (the front,
usu Hy decorated, upright) and the billet (horizontal) bar. The billet bar
supj orted the logs and the stauke was to prevent them from falling out
of t e fireplace. The earliest liredogs were made of wrought iron, but
Iron the middle of the 16th century the staukes were cast on to the billet
bars.
F om the 16th century, firedogs became more elaborate, and though
impler types were still used in ordinary houses and the kitchens of
big louses, the more flamboyant types were used in the main rooms of
the big houses. Before long they became no more than a decorative
adjunct to the fireplace, in elaborately-wrought and highly-polished
braskJ bronze, steel and even silver.
Cast-iron holloware should also be mentioned (cauldrons, bowls and
mortars for instance), which was made in the low Countries and in
England in great quantities from the 16th century onwards. Design
followed that of similar bronzework, albeit more simply.
Pewter
Although domestic pewter was well established by the middle of the 15th wrough,
cent try, it was not until about 1550 that there was any attempt to move
awa ‘ from traditional designs. The reasons for this are various, notably
that pewter was not made in Italy, the birthplace of the Renaissance, and
so tli ere was no school of pewterers to lead the way. Possibly as important
as he fact that until the 16th century there was no real market for luxury
pewrerware for the rich were still buying silver. As a result most of the
pewjer made before 1550 was entirely functional not artistic.
Tie Renaissance caught up with the pewterer at the same time as did
the general increase in wealth which manifested itself in the new middle
class .As a result the second half of the 16th century saw the arrival of
the ige of ‘display* pewter, which for the middle class became their
ansver to the display silver of the nobility. Display pewter was entirely
non-functional and is characterized by its relief decoration, for which
reas it is sometimes called relief pewter. It originated in France and
sooi (became popular in Nuremberg, but was never enthusiastically
rece ved in England. One of the earliest surviving pieces is a tankard by
Rolyn Griffet who lived in Lyons from 1528 68. Ihe creator of relief
pew ter though was Francois Briot of Lorraine, who is still best known
lor his masterpiece the ‘Temperantia Dish’ which was made between
158f 490. The dish is accompanied by a ewer as is another dish he made
decorated with the seated figure of Mars. Other surviving pieces of Briot’s
de a salt cellar and a bowl portraying the figure of Susanna.
The pewterers of Nuremberg were quick to follow Briot’s example and
decoration became even more popular there than in France. The
first Nuremberg pewterer to use the technique was N icholas Horchhaimer
who specialized in large bowls with low relief figures. His particular
technique of relief decoration was rather different from that of the Lyons
pew erers who used engraved moulds. Horchhaimer’s technique is
knoton as the ‘wood-cut’ style since the final product is a flat two-tier
relief reminiscent of wood-cuts.